|
TITLE |
"The Last of His Tribe" |
"We are going" |
|
POET |
Henry Kendall |
Oodgeroo Noonuccal |
|
POINT OF VIEW |
white man |
black woman |
|
SETTING |
19th C |
20th C |
|
ETHOS |
paternalistic Colonial 1880s |
assertive Aboriginal 1980s |
|
SUBJECT: |
he (singular) |
we (group, tribe) |
|
ATMOSPHERE |
sympathy |
respect |
|
TONE |
sadness |
revitalised renewed identity |
|
PIVOTAL DIALOGUE |
"Thunder makes him a hunter" |
"We are the lightning . . . and the Thunder" |
|
GENRE |
formal verse |
free verse |
|
FORM |
verses of 5 lines each, ababb |
stream of memory |
|
LENGTH |
35 lines |
26 lines |
|
SETTING |
wallaroos |
scrubs, eagle, emu, kangaroos |
|
Totemic symbols |
boomerangs, nullah, sling and spear |
bora ring |
It's quite true that poets often reflect the periods in which they write. As Les Murray claims, the poet is able to articulate the mood of the times and can be the conscience of an era, in short a good poem cannot lie. I found this to be so in the following comparison of two periods of Australian poetry exemplified by Henry Kendall's "The Last of His Tribe" and Oodgeroo Noonuccal's "We are going." The following discussion will compare and contrast themes, craft and points of view in these poems.
These poems are suitable examples for this discussion comparing eras in Australian history and the poems are by and large typical of their authors. Kendall's Colonial period attempt to capture the Australian scene in verse is exemplified here. In this poem he was able to portray the unique events of the Australian landscape and history in a tone of regret. Noonuccal embodies the rise of Aboriginies as a political force in the late twentieth century,the environmental devastation we all recognise and picks up our white hankering for a spirit of place so natural in Aboriginal peoples.
With a paternalistic, pitying attitude typical of nineteenth century Australian colonists, Kendall quite genuinely touches the loneliness of the last member of an Aboriginal tribe. He focuses on the individual's anonymity, his anguish and his abhorrent destiny. He dramatises the man's thoughts and memories of "hunts of yore .. and of fights he fought" (18). The mood is elegiac as the poet invokes Uloola, a Dreamtime god, to behold him while a thunderstorm temporarily rekindles the smouldering ashes of memory in him.
In stark contrast, Oodgeroo portrays a little band of aborigines, "all that remained of their tribe" (3) entering a township as relative outcasts, "we are strangers here now" (9), evoking not pity but respect. They are confused, "subdued and silent" because the central symbol of their identity, culture and religion, the bora ring, lies desecrated by the whites. In twentieth century style, the poet demonstrates the sad paradoxes of their situation.
Both poets highlight the items of the fauna and the artefacts of their culture: "boomerangs, nullah, sling and spear" abide with wallaroos, rocks and thunder in Kendall, while eagle, emu, kangaroo, scrubs and bora constitute the living world for Oodgeroo's characters. For both poets, memory is the most powerful stimulus: while Kendall highlights the happy hunts experienced before the white invasion (a twentieth century term), Oodgeroo finds some optimism in memories of the happiness of pre-white days. The Thunder revives the last of his tribe to be a hunter again, while Oodgeroo shows that her characters identify closely with their own proper environment "We are the lighting. . . and the Thunder, that loud fellow" (17).
Yet many contrasts arise here too. Different points of view reveal chasmic differences: Kendall is a white man in the nineteenth century, Oodgeroo is a black woman in the twentieth. Poetic forms differ widely: Kendall's 35 line poem is in seven formal verses with ababb rhyming but Oodgeroo's is in free verse of 26 lines. Her litany in the repetition of the "We are .." phrases shows how the singularity of the last of his tribe is now regenerated into the plural of tribal survival in the twentieth century. Where Kendall was descriptive, Oodjeroo is assertive.
Clearly then these poems reflect the periods in
which they were written. The poets' themes, craft and points of view
reflect different periods of Australian history. What is enjoyable is
that they can still convey their different feelings and approaches so
effectively to us today when we hunger for personal authenticity,
tribal connectedness and economic certainty ourselves. # 623 words
Migrants' Mental Hardships
The two poets I have chosen were J J Encarnacao and Kevin Hart. These poets were chosen because of their different content of poetry from that of other Australian poets, and also because they do not just talk about Australia and Australian culture as most Australian poets do. I found this refreshing compared to the almost predictable content of poets such as Banjo Paterson. These two poets discuss their own life experience from war torn countries and the experience of how it changes you and how it happens (in the case of Hart's "From Prague 1968"). They show (in the case of Encarnacao) that people's hardships in Australia extend beyond physical hardships and into mental hardships.
The poets' ideas in these poems is to show people their life experience and share what they have seen or felt. Hart conveys his experience of war and being taken away from what he knew and finding that he was alone after he woke and then being captured and being put with all the other people from his town and being taken away by soldiers.
Encarnacao shows the experience of being an exile from your own country, and having no family to comfort you. Encarnacao tells how strange things look to a person who may have no where top stay and no one to turn to, but how life, in spite of all the hardships that a person has endured, must go on.
Encarnacao's and Hart's poetic styles are quite different. Encarnacao uses short lines and uses imagery to get his feeling across to the reader. There is a great deal of personal feelings in his poem The Exile. I feel that this shows a greater element of truth to the poem, rather than just writing about experiences that have been told to them or seen as some poets do, and this realism makes the poetry more interesting.
Hart uses longer lines and a lot more imagery than Encarnacao. This visual imagery adds greatly to the overall ideas of the poem, "From Prague 1968". This imagery also take your mind away from what the poem is actually about, for example, "the sort of silence that hunts abound abandoned aerodromes." This sentence draws away from what the poem is about and also at the same time adds to the poem by illustrating to the reader what it was like at the time. The amount of detail in this poem shows how the poet had actually experienced this situation.
Encarnacao's poem "The Exile" shows the hardships that he has suffered in Australia. This contrasts to most Australian poets' poetry which shows how much better life in Australia [is]. This poem seems to show that life in Australia is not better or worse than where he was, just a different set of hardships to deal with, such as being without his family and not being able to go back to the country that he grew up in without being arrested. This poem also shows the issue of loneliness in the Australian society which some people seem doesn't exist but obviously there is not a support structure for exiles (political or otherwise) in Australia.
Kevin Hart's poem shows a contrast to Australian life, in that the way war affects people and the extreme change in scene from one day to the next, with death or destruction changing the face of a city or area almost daily. The subject of war goes against an Australian experience, where the only wars are foreign ones, and people that are not involved in fighting in them do not experience situations such as Hart has written about in this poem.
In conclusion I would have to say that the expression of the strange, or what would be considered so, situations of these poems makes them far more interesting than those of more famous poets such as Paterson.
Kristian Wegener (under exam conditions),
September 1996
Fearing Ourselves before
Snakes
1996 Australian Poetry Exam Answer by Harry Lau
The two Australian poems I have chosen are "The Killer" by Judith Wright and "Snake" by Ian Mudie. They are popular Australian poets and well known internationally. Judith Wright was born in 1915 in the New England district of New South Wales. She was co-founder of the wildlife preservation society of Queensland. Many of her poems are about the Australian environment. Like Judith Wright, Ian Mudie also writes about the landscape particularly in South Australia. He was born in 1911. Both poets are well known because their writing is about Aborigines, bush animals and Australian folk lore.
"The Killer" begins with a fall into a creek. A snake is seen and fear is felt. She tries to kill it: "O beat him into the ground/O strike him till he dies." The snake is black and red and as he dies, "His icy glance turns outward." However the snake-killer soon realises that her enemy is not the snake but fear itself. [Similarly] Ian Mudie's poem is also about a snake and begins with a walk in the long grass. Suddenly a snake is seen and he is afraid of it. He admires the graceful snake, but it disappears. He then makes another point as he relates how the snake reports its meeting with " a man, a monster."
Ian Mudie's poem has two stanzas which do not have any rhythm. However, the image of the snake is shown in the variation of length of the lines. A short line in the first stanza has the word "the snake" making the reader aware of the topic of the poem. Mudie then describes it through use of alliteration and is represented by repeated use of "s" as in "smoothness... slither ... disappears ... and grass." The second verse also uses alliteration: "m" in "men and monster" to report the conversation.
The images used by Judith Wright also clearly portray a snake and its death. Her poem has seven four line stanzas with the second and fourth lines rhyming. It is interesting to note that the fourth stanza does not rhyme. In this stanza, the snake dies, which is the turning point in the story. After the snake dies, "the killer" is actually the person who is afraid. This poem has two similes in the first stanza: to describe the day "clear as fire" and the birds' song, "frail as glass." Alliteration is used as in "lips to the live water" in verse 2. However it is the poet's use of adjectives throughout which really makes the images realistic.
The poems have the same subject matter which is a human reaction to seeing a snake. However, the emotional response in each poem is different. Ian Mudie's poem is humorous, ending with the snake's viewpoint, however Judith Wright's treatment of the subject matter is serious.
These poems encourage readers to think differently
about life. It is her fear that is the problem, not the snake. She
shows that it is the fear in our minds that must be overcome and not
things in the outside world. Ian Mudie is showing us the benefit of
looking at something through another's eyes. We are asked to look at
both sides of a problem. These poems both have lessons for readers.
"Hostile Environments in
Australia" A
sample answer begun .....
These two poems are samples of typical Australian sentiment at different times, Lawson in the late 19th century and Dawes in late 20th. The two offer interesting comparisons and many contrasts and so this discussion aims to show how Australian poetry has reflected the issues of the eras in which they were written. Both Lawson and Dawes are spokesmen for their times as both grapple with hostile environments that Australia offers.
The poem's forms are typical of their eras. Lawson's "The Ballad of the Drover" is readily recognised as a poem of the previous century - it is a narrative in ballad form. Its eleven verses of eight lines each tell the fatal story of an unnamed drover who loses his life while on the job fording a river in Australia's hostile Outback. In "the victims" (note the lower case letters) Dawe reflects on the unnamed victims of crime in Australia's hostile city environment. Both poets share their anguish over such untimely deaths.
There are many formal contrasts between the two:
Lawson's poem is Romantic, Dawe's is Realistic; Lawson's formal verse
is couched in abcb rhyme with a largely regular rhythm whereas Dawe
offers blank verse with fractured rhythms; Lawson celebrates the
single pioneering hero and his dog but Dawe criticises the effects of
excessive newspaper reporting of crime on unnamed individual victims;
Lawson chooses linear narrative with plain diction but Dawe uses
knotted diction in a stream of consciousness 'structure'. Comparing
the two poems reminds one how Australian poetry plots our responses
to the necessary changes that our history brings.
Kendall and Slessor:
typical poets of their eras
As Australia has grown as a nation, our literature has reflected the changes of the times. Australian poetry has evolved from soothing bush ballads to the confronting free verse of today. Two poems which reflect this change, while still maintaining similar feeling and content, are Henry Kendall's "Bell-birds" and Kenneth Slessor's "North Country." Despite their similar mood, they each reflect the author's preoccupations and the period in which each wrote.
Kendall wrote "Bell-Birds" in 1865, in a period of ballads glorifying the beauty of the Australian forests. Slessor wrote "North Country" in the modern era of non-conformity to the traditional roles of poets. Both poems have a strong sense of sentiment, but in different ways. In "Bell-Birds", Kendall seeks to give to the reader an image of this idyllic setting. He tells of the simple beauty of the forest, and the beauty of the bell-birds' songs. This all combines to give the poem a peaceful and relaxed mood, the feeling of the setting itself. This is in stark contrast to the mood in "North Country" where the author creates a terse and angry mood, as he describes the destruction of the forest. The poem is full of vivid descriptions of the carnage, and conveys the of angry nostalgia - looking back to the past and remembering what once was. Despite having similar feelings, though in different ways, these two poems can be called similar in this respect.
Another area where "Bell-Birds" and "North Country" are similar is in the strong imagery they produce, though again in different ways. In "Bell-Birds" , Kendall uses attractive metaphors such as "silver voiced bell-birds" to give the reader an idea of the quality of the bell-birds' call. He also uses several examples of personification such as in "October, the maiden of bright yellow tresses" and "fiery December sets foot in the forest", to indicate to the reader the changing of the seasons, and their accompanying characteristics. There is much description of this tranquil setting until Kendall abruptly interrupts in the final stanza to give the poem its message and direction. Without this narration, the poem would have no real purpose except to glorify the forest. In this final stanza, Kendall says his memories of bell-birds helps in "charming to slumber the pain of my losses." This conveys the poet's message of the great importance and beauty of our bush.
This message is similar to Slessor's who wants the reader to realise the importance of the bush and the sheer stupidity of destroying it. He conveys this sense of anger through several strong similes, such as in the fourth stanza, "like bodies blank and wretched/After a fool's battue" when describing the senseless destruction. A battue is when, on a hunt, the animals are flushed out to be shot by the hunters. This language is used to convey the senseless, wholesale slaughter of the forest. As in "Bell-Birds", Slessor uses bluntly realistic imagery to paint the picture of the destruction. In the final stanza, Slessor uses powerful imagery to reinforce his message: he says "timber's the end it gives to branches/Cut off in cubic inches/Dripping red with blood." The final line is a graphic finale to "North Country". For both poems, the authors used many poetic devices to illustrate their message to the reader.
The use of these poetic techniques in both "Bell-Birds" and "North Country" is strikingly effective. In the descriptions, the reader receives a vivid mental image. In "Bell-Birds", the gentle description, with harsh sounds, combines with its bush ballad rhythm to give a relaxing and soothing feeling. The poem is dreamy and happy until the final paragraph where Slessor introduces his feeling of nostalgia about the idyllic place of his youth. This is very different to Slessor's nostalgic and angry tone. Perhaps Slessor grew up in the forest described by Kendall, and seeing the destruction of the forests fills him with a longing for the past. His use of strong imagery is effective in conveying the horror of the scene and the poet's distaste for it. Both Kendall and Slessor effectively convey their message to the reader through their powerful imagery of the setting.
The poets' messages on Australian life are vastly different. In "Bell-Birds" Kendall portrays the setting as peaceful and unmoved by human touch. This is different to Slessor's view of the pillaged environment which was probably once the ideal setting Kendall describes. These views are typical of the periods in which the authors worked. Kendall's traditional ballad is similar to other poets of the period such as Charles Harpur, glorifying the beasts of our land. Slessor's free verse is also typical of a time of great [social] upheaval and questioning. "North Country" and "Bell-Birds" both reflect the views of their times, and convey the attitudes of the period.
Throughout the years, [Australian] poetry has undergone many great changes. Two poems which reflect this change, whilst retaining similar feelings and techniques, are "Bell-Birds" and "North Country". They both effectively convey their [distinctive] messages from their time and are typical of their eras.
Sam K. 1998: Examination essay without notes
Characterising Two Eras in Australian
Poetry: Esson & Noonuccal
by Tom C.
1998 commemorates 210 years of white settlement in this vast land we call Australia. During this time, she has experienced the highs, like the birth of the Federation, and the lows, such as the tragic loss of youth in Gallipoli. However, throughout the years, hundreds of poets have celebrated Australia's unique landscape and vibrant charm. Viewpoints' correspondent, Tom Cotterill, here reports on the influence poetry has had, as writers express their views on the Australian landscape, and on issues pertinent to the periods in which they wrote.
The death of Oodgeroo Noonuccal in 1993 ended a chapter of Australian poetry that will forever be remembered. Poets like Oodjeroo epitomised Australian lifestyle. Her outspoken views on Aboriginal rights helped mark a turning point in Australian [literary] history, with an historic referendum [giving the right to vote to Aboriginal peoples.] Her poetry came mainly in the form of free verse and lyric, and addressed important issues like Aboriginal history and racism.
Oodgeroo's poem, "The Colour Bar", is a good example of her work. Racism was a theme that was commonly dealt with by Noonuccal; however most of her poems were more subtle than it. It very bluntly voices Oodgeroo's opinion on racism. The poem contains nine stanzas each of two lines long and rhyming. The message is clear: God created everyone equal. The tone is forthright, the mood is angry, as a passionate Oodgeroo denounces racism. She refers to racists as 'of moron kind", and "colour-baiting clods." The title very appropriately introduces the poem's title: an imaginary line drawn between one race and another, each with its own set of morals and values. The fourth stanza continues this train of thought when Oodjeroo uses metaphor to portray racists as "medieval." This depicts them as having the brains of Neanderthals and their hostile views as uneducated.
The third stanza uses alliteration to emphasise the stupidity of these hostile views: "It shows the meaner mind of moron kind." The final stanza is a strong final statement that sums up the hypocrites' "content with precedent." This bold declaration accuses our [white] society of being a farce. It expressed the idiocy of using examples from the past to justify our actions in the present. The poem is very moving, and has hopefully altered some people's way of thinking.
"The Shearer's Wife" by Louis Esson is a different kind of poem. Esson was born in 1879 and worked in theatre until his death in 1943. Like Noonuccal, Esson predominantly wrote in the forms of free verse and lyric. However, Esson wrote in a different time period to Noonuccal, and subsequently their poems address different key issues. Esson's poem, "The Shearer's Wife", tells the story of a young woman who is forced to do laborious duties during her husband's absences at work. Hence the title is very appropriate as it introduces the subject matter of the poem. The first stanza tells us how the shearer's wide is forced to perform all the farm work while her husband is away, "shearing from shed to shed." The second stanza provides us with an insight into her mind, and reveals how she is "tired o' the bush."
Esson uses rhyme throughout in two different forms. The first and third lines of each stanza rhyme, as do the second and fourth. The three penultimate lines of each verse also rhyme. Esson writes this way to make the poem more vibrant and rhythmical [to accentuate the monotone.] Like "The Colour Bar", Esson's poem is forthright and contains no subtle messages. The tone is precise and the mood is philosophic to create a scenario which was occurring all over Australia at that time. he uses repetition of the words "times" and "lonely" to really emphasise the woman's feelings. Esson also uses personification, "The moon is lonely in the sky" to compare the single figure of the moon in space with the single figure of the woman on the farm. The poem reflects the attitudes and feelings of many women at the time, and is a great example of Esson's work.
Esson and Noonuccal are two classic examples of Australian poets. Even through their poems were written years apart, they both addressed issues that were important and in Noonuccal's case, controversial at the time. They both used poetry as a medium of expressing their [views of the] structure of society at the time of writing. Esson wrote his poems when many Australians still worked in the bush, and a major issue was loneliness on the farm. When Noonuccal wrote, most of Australia was urbanised and a major issue was racism. Both poems provide us with an insight into the minds of the characters discussed in the poem. Through Esson's poems, we learn that the shearer's wife is "tired o' the bush, the cows, the gums." In Noonuccal's poem, she provides readers with her stance on racism. The poets use similar poetic techniques, like alliteration, personification and rhyme, to make their poems more memorable. The structure of the poems differs slightly, with each stanza in Noonuccal's poem lasting only two lines. Both poems are great examples of Australian poetry.
As we celebrate the 210th year of white settlement in Australia, we can only hope that in another 210 years, people will still be able to look back upon Australian poetry with pride. The platform has been laid by poets like Noonuccal and Esson, and the onus is now on the new generation of Australian poets to pick up the pen and write [about their eras.]
Under exam conditions without notes. 11/9/98.