QUEENSLAND

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND HOUSING

BUILT ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH UNIT

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION

GUIDELINES

SEPTEMBER 1997

HUGHES CONSULTING SERVICES PTY LTD
Floor 1, 31 Station Road
P.O.Box 276
INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068
Telephone 07 3378 9111
Facsimile 07 3878 1252

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION GUIDELINES

BENCHMARK

It is intended that these EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION GUIDELINES be used by relevant Queensland Government departments, agencies and others in the determination of the life cycle of buildings and other structures from their inception to disposal, and which will incorporate the PLANNING, PROCUREMENT, ASSET MANAGEMENT, MAINTENANCE and DISPOSAL aspects of such developments.

These guidelines have been prepared with the assistance of Hughes Consulting Services Pty Ltd, Project Managers and Consulting Engineers .

1. Aim of Guidelines 1
2. Guideline Objectives 2
3. Earthquake Occurrence Mechanism 3
4. Overview for Building Design for Earthquakes 5
5. Typical Building Elements that are Damaged During Earthquakes 7
6. Main Issues 9
7. Exclusions 10
8. Definitions 11
9. Basic Understanding and Further Information 14
10. Environmental Management Activities and Performance 15
11. Methodology for Earthquake Damage Mitigation 16
12. Assessment of Vulnerability 20
13. Compliance with Regulations 22
14. Policy and Organisational Criteria 23
15. Guidelines for Earthquake Damage Mitigation 24
16. Bibliography 47`

APPENDIX A - FLOW CHARTS

A1 PLANNING FOR NEW BUILDINGS

A2 DESIGN OF NEW BUILDINGS

A3 ASSET MANAGEMENT

A4 ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

A5 MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS

A6 POST EARTHQUAKE ASSESSMENT

APPENDIX B - CHECK LISTS

B1 PLANNING

B2 PROCUREMENT

B3 ASSET MANAGEMENT

B4 MAINTENANCE

B5 DISPOSAL / POST DISASTER

APPENDIX C - LOCALITY CHART, DIAGRAMS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

C1 TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARIES

C2 LOCALITY CHART

C3 AREAS of CONCERN in STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS with IRREGULAR CONFIGURATIONS

C4 PHOTOGRAPHS

The aim of these Guidelines is to ensure that any building or structure for which the Queensland State Government is responsible shall have adequate consideration made of requirements and protection should an earthquake occur, in addition to the requirements covered by the relevant current Building Codes and Australian Standards.

These guidelines should be set also to provide an assessment to maximise protection for the building's users and human life generally in case of earthquake occurrence.

Both existing and new buildings shall be managed in a manner that minimises risk of damage in accordance with methods and strategies recommended by earthquake design mitigation specialists.

NOTE:

While these Guidelines provide a generalised earthquake mitigation assessment guide, they do not cover all cases and types of buildings that may be identified. In those cases, reference should be made to a qualified experienced specialist practitioner.

The objectives for the provision of these Guidelines are:

• to identify design criteria and provide recommendations for earthquake resistance, for all specific building types and all building services
• to identify the affects that soils and location have on earthquake design loads
• to identify the consequences of design and detailing inadequacies in building vulnerability
• to identify building structural and architectural details and requirements for earthquake resistance
• to identify the potential failure mechanisms with regard to the various and alternative building services and framing systems available, and
• to provide an awareness for planners, designers and managers of the potential hazards caused by earthquakes and the solutions available to reduce the vulnerability of buildings, structures or services should an earthquake occur.

Earthquakes are caused by the differential movement of the tectonic plates which form the earth's crust. The differential movement of the plates, both at the plate's boundaries and within a plate, generate energy which is stored until that energy is greater than can be resisted by the matrix of rock which forms the earth's crust. The "explosion", upon release of this energy, generates a series of compression waves which pass through the crustal strata at varying speeds and magnitude depending on the properties of the strata encountered.

The waves so formed are a complex mixture of horizontal and vertical oscillations known as P, S and L waves. It is the S waves that generally cause the damage to buildings, services and other infrastructure. The waves cause a peak ground acceleration or motion of the ground in horizontal, vertical and lateral directions. It is this motion of the underlying ground that the structure and its foundations have to be able to resist

Figure 3.1-Typical Seismograph Output

The soil type and profile on which the building is situated directly effects the size of ground motion that will be encountered. For instance, the ground motion in a soft silty sand can generally be more damaging than the ground motion from the same earthquake intensity in a dense gravelly soil. However damage can also be associated with the presence of faults in rock formations, lineaments and at the interface in major geological features. Large lateral movements can often occur at these faults following earthquakes.

Australia is located within the central section of the Australian tectonic plate. Hence all of the earthquakes that have been experienced directly within Australia are intraplate earthquakes. These types of earthquakes are limited to about the top 50 kilometres of the earths crust, are random in their location, and are generally smaller in magnitude, whereas intraplate earthquakes that are associated with tectonic plate movements may be reasonably determined in there location and magnitude. Northern Australia, especially in Northern Territory and northern Western Australia can experience the effects of intraplate earthquakes which occur in Indonesia or under the seas between Australia and Indonesia, at the tectonic plate margin or boundary.

The hazard of a particular area is determined from past events whether by electronic data or by peoples' recollections of vibrations and movement felt.

Queensland's hazard areas are generally located within a 200km strip west from the coast or off the coast to the continental shelf.

The Maryborough - Gladstone region due to the intensity and number of earthquake occurrences is considered to have a medium hazard rating, with the remainder of the coastal area medium to low. Specific pockets where earthquakes have occurred have higher hazard ratings while western areas due to the lack of earthquake records are considered as having a low hazard rating.

Only since 1993 for the whole of Australia, and previously since 1979 for specific locations in Australia, has earthquake loading for specific building types had to be considered. Hence there is a need, due to the current litigious nature of the world (e.g. following the failure of the Newcastle Workers' Club caused by the 1989 Newcastle Earthquake), that certain planning, design, maintenance and operation building procedures have to be considered. The Foreword to "Australian Standard AS1170 Part - 4 - 1993, Earthquake Loads" states:

"The purpose of designing structures for earthquake loads is to -

(a) minimize the risk of loss of life from structure collapse or damage in the event of an earthquake:

(b) improve the expected performance of structures; and

(c) improve the capability of structures that are essential to post-earthquake recovery to function during and after an earthquake, and to minimize the risk of damage to hazardous facilities.

The design of structures to this Standard does not necessarily prevent structural and non-structural damage in the event of an earthquake. The provisions provide the minimum criteria considered to be prudent for the protection of life by minimizing the likelihood of collapse of the structures.

The ground motions specified in this Standard are for the 'design earthquake' based on an estimated 90% probability of these ground motions not being exceeded in a 50-year period.

The detailing requirements specified in this Standard are of a general nature related specifically to earthquake resistant design. Specific detailing appropriate for each material (concrete, steel, masonry, timber, etc) will be found in the relevant material Standards."

and is the basis for assessment of all buildings and structures for earthquakes in Australia.

These Guidelines are based on the above stated premise.

In the event of an earthquake occurring and assuming that the building has been designed to resist earthquake loads, minor damage to non-structural and structural elements may occur.

Building elements likely to be damaged in a conforming building during an earthquake are:-

• unreinforced masonry
• gable end walls
• unbraced brick parapets
• unbraced chimneys
• windows and frames
• internal cupboards and furniture

Any damage to these types of items may not render the building unusable, nor may it lose its functionality. Should the building remain "operational", although "damaged" then this means that the frame has provided the required structural resistance.

If a building is considered critical for post-disaster functions, and the building frame remains intact but the essential services which are relied upon to ensure post-disaster functionality fail, then the building has "failed" to meet the requirements of the design. For example, if a building that requires water supply, backup power, lighting, etc., for post-disaster functions fails to provide these services due to the failure of, say, one of these systems, then the building has "failed".

AS1170 Part 4-1993 Earthquake Loads recognises as indicated previously, that some minor damage may occur during an earthquake. To design a building to sustain NO damage during a probable maximum sized earthquake, is considered uneconomical. Hence it is essential that the damage that will occur is minimised and sustainable but NOT catastrophic.

The most common building element damages caused by an earthquake, are:-

• internal fittings and furniture moving;
• tall cupboards falling over;
• light fittings, air conditioning and ceiling units dislodging and coming loose;
• objects in high cupboards falling out causing damage and potential injury;
• wall linings which do not have capacity for horizontal or vertical movements;
• water damage due to broken pipes;
• loss of power due to broken power cables;
• brick walls with insufficient strength cracking and collapsing;
• unsupported masonry parapets falling over due to insufficient anchorage or bracing;
• windows cracking due to building movement;
• loss of communications network
• precast panels and other architectural features falling from the building facades having insufficient or ineffective fixings;
• tiltup wall panels losing support due to insufficient or ineffective fixings;
• water pipes breaking at expansion joints and equipment connection points;
• water storage tanks (especially those on roofs) rupturing and or moving and breaking pipework;
• mechanical equipment moving off bases and causing disconnection;
• electrical equipment moving off bases and causing disconnection;
• power backup battery facilities falling off shelves causing loss of backup power;
• loss of support to suspended slabs from masonry walls where reinforcement has not continued through to the slab, particularly vulnerable in unreinforced masonry buildings;
• rotation of retaining walls due to increased vertical and horizontal earth pressures;
• differential movement between foundations and floor slabs due to ground movements;
• insufficient support to air conditioning equipment
• differential movement between various soil types supporting foundations;
• irregular shaped buildings have different modes of vibration for the different sections of the building causing concentration of stresses and excessive loads at discontinuities;
• "Soft storeys" failure due to lack of support to withstand horizontal loading;
• load bearing walls with no continuity to upper or lower floor framing systems;
• failure of vibration isolation support;
• inadequate foundation system for earthquake loads;
• suspended slabs on unreinforced masonry walls losing support due to the lateral displacement of the wall under;
• columns cracking;
• punching of colums through suspended slabs;
• broken pipework; and
• loss of service functions.

And many more.

If you are unsure - ASK!!

The main issues to be covered by these Guidelines are related to the potential damage to the various buildings and services that have to be considered for earthquake loading. This has to be considered during the planning, design, procurement, asset management and disposal phases of the life of a building, in relation to:

• Soil and Foundation Conditions
• Building Classification/Use
• Structural Systems
• Mechanical Services
• Electrical Services
• Hydraulic Services
• Architectural Features, and
• Access and Egress.

The following issues are not covered by these Guidelines:-

• Compliance with the relevant codes and regulations;
• Development of post-disaster strategies;
• The methodology to overcome deficiencies in design for existing buildings;
• Specific details to cater for earthquakes to avoid possible damage;
• Buildings for which the Queensland State Government has no responsibility;
• Infrastructure such as roads, dams, masts, aerials, bridges, etc.
• The methodology does not include provision for emergency services.

Should more information be required or specific answers to any of the above exclusions to these guidelines be required, these can be obtained from consultants experienced in the practical design for earthquakes or the provision of emergency services.

If you are unsure - ASK!!

The following definitions are provided to assist the user of the guidelines.

Gravitational Acceleration g

Acceleration due to gravity taken as 9.81 m/s2.

Irregular Structure/Building

An irregular structure is defined as a building that in plan or elevation varies in width from one section of the building to another by more than 15%. Typically this would be an "L" or "U" shaped building or large area podium floor plan with a slender tower over.

Soft Stories

A "soft storey" is a section of the building that varies in stiffness by more than 30% to the floor above or below. These are typically open areas, under cover carparks, or with a large open foyer or vestibule, with a rigid framed building over.

Soil types

The following soil profiles are defined in AS1170 Part 4- 1993 and are used to determine forces on the foundations of structures. Each of the soil types has been given a type letter to enable easier use within these guidelines.

1	General structures

	Type A
		Low strength rock or better;

	Type B
	(i)  	Extremely low strength rock or better;
	(ii) 	Not more than 30m of medium dense coarse sand and gravel,
		firm or stiff clays or controlled fill;

	Type C
		More than 30m of medium dense coarse sand and gravel, firm or
		stiff clays or controlled fill;

	Type D
		A soil profile of 20m or more with 6m to 12m of very soft to soft
		clays, very loose to loose sands, silt and/or uncontrolled fill.

	Type E
		More than 12m of very soft to soft clay, very loose to loose sands,
		silt and/or uncontrolled fill.

2. 	Domestic Structures

	Normal 	Other than Soft
	Soft 	Any soil profile with more than 5m of soft clay, loose
		sand, silt and/or uncontrolled fill.

Comparative Risk Factor

The "Comparative Risk Factor" has been developed for these Guidelines to assist planners, designers, etc, in the selection of the most suitable site for a building. The factor is subjective and dependant on the type or component of the building or structure being assessed.

The user should also refer to the following references (latest editions) for full definitions and explanations of terms explanations, and definitions,, to fully explain those defined above:-

• AS1170 Part 1 - Loading Code;
• AS1170 Part 4 - Earthquake Loads; and
• Building Code of Australia.

Damage

There were four (4) levels of damage to buildings used after the Newcastle earthquake. Notices to this effect were placed on buildings and colour coded accordingly.

Damage can be defined as either minor or major, with subdefinitions of each.

Minor

TYPE A Little or no damage, building is satisfactory for continued habitation.

eg. hairline cracks visible.

TYPE B Some damage. Building is satisfactory for continued habitation but repairs are required

Major

TYPE C Sufficient damage to building to be hazardous to occupants although building is repairable.

TYPE D Building is hazardous to public and cannot be repair to original condition. Building is to be demolished.

It is assumed that the user of these Guidelines is fully familiar with building terms, construction, operation and maintenance procedures and terms and/or design methods in the relevant fields of expertise of the building or building services industry generally.

Should any user of these Guidelines not have the required understanding, expertise or experience in the use of these terms, then professional assistance must be sought to understand or interpret these Guidelines.

Many publications are available on the matter of earthquakes. Material used in the preparation of these guidelines is listed in 16.0 Bibliograghy. Internet sites that may be of use to the reader are also listed in the bibliography.

If the user is in doubt regarding anything in these Guidelines - ASK!!

10.1 Environmental Management

Buildings and services have to be planned, designed, constructed and maintained to ensure that in cases of earthquake occurrence, that an environmental management plan is established. In such cases, all damage should be confined to ensure that such damage does not increase injury or death to users of the building and services and to minimise potential pollution and further injury from damaged services e.g. sewerage, live electric wires, etc.

The need to maintain water supply, electricity and other services to control fire outbreaks, provide air-conditioning and other facilities for post-disaster facilities and refrigeration for the maintenance of food supplies, are all aspects of a management plan to ensure the sustaining of environmental equilibrium after an earthquake occurrence.

The need for an environmental management plan for all activities is essential and is the responsibility of the directors and managers of the operation of a building or service.

10.2 Environmental Performance

It is recognised that the provision of retrofitting or upgrading a structure to resist earthquake loads may cost more than the previously designed non-earthquake resistant structure. It is also recognised that the repair of damaged buildings, loss of life and extra resources required to reinstate buildings and services can in fact cost more in the long term than the original construction . This all adds to the life cycle cost and in turn the environment upon which it can impact. Hence while some extra resources may be required initially, long term, if earthquake disaster occurs, the benefits should be reaped.

Retro-fitting of buildings to suit current design standards especially for buildings designed for large occupancy, institutional or post-disaster uses, may cost more than to provide a totally new building designed and constructed specifically to meet the new requirements.

11.1 Assessment of Existing Buildings

It is important to determine or identify which or what section of any existing building will be susceptible to earthquake damage due to their construction and/or building components. This will allow for a management plan to be developed for the building and the use, if appropriate, of the building to be modified if required so as to minimise potential injury or loss of life. It also allows modifications to the building to reflect new design requirements and minimise any potential hazard. Typically, this would involve the recording of the framing system, facade system and also whether the building contains any vulnerable elements, such as unreinforced masonry, soft storeys, irregular structure shapes and any mechanical and electrical systems that may be required for post-disaster functionality of the building.

The following flow chart gives the procedure that should be taken to assess the vulnerability of an existing building.

click here to see flow diagram for procedure to assess an existing building

11.2 Design of New Buildings

There are numerous items that have to be considered in the design of a new building. Those professions involved in the design must ensure that the functionality of a building continues after an earthquake. This is most important, especially if the building has a post-disaster function.

click here to see flow diagram for procedure in planning for new building

Planning involves the selection of the appropriate facade systems, structural framing and foundation system, anchorage of mechanical and electrical components and provision for sufficient flexibility between, and in structural and moveable items. Also necessary, is the ability for occupants to exit the building quickly in an emergency such as an earthquake and also the ability for emergency service personnel to enter the building after such an occurrence.

All buildings will "move" to some extent during an earthquake and some may suffer a permanent "set," which could jamb doors and windows, crack walls or identify differential settlement of foundations, etc.

If a building is designed to meet the requirements of the AS1170 Part4-1993, there should be in Australia, good to adequate performance of the building during and following an earthquake event. However if the building is not designed in accordance with the above Standard, then the level of vulnerability and non performance can be high to extremely high.

click here to see flow diagram for procedure in designing new buildings

11.3 Management of Existing Buildings

A post-disaster management plan and building operational plan should be developed for each building to enable that building to continue to function after an earthquake. The building management plan has to be developed for the life of the building as a part of its operational and emergency management plan.

Critical to any post-disaster function and performance of a building,, the minimisation of loss of life and injury is the development of evacuation strategies and plans. This may include an inventory of equipment associated with the building that could be used in a post-disaster emergency response. eg a tractor that could clear rubble to provide access to emergency service personnel and provides for occupants to exit. Emergency Schedules and Procedures for checking the structure for weakened or damaged components, e.g. brick ties or cracks in brickwork and masonry, missing anchorage bolts for service equipment, etc, should be developed for each building.

The following flow chart outlines the procedures that should be undertaken to prepare these management and disaster strategies .

click here to see flow diagram for procedure to manage existing buildings

The strategic plan would include the development of procedures for the following:

• Building Description
• Use of Building
• Building Elements
• Service Equipment
• Occupant Register.

The provision of the above plan provides help to identify changes in use and elements that could alter the vulnerability of the building in the event of an earthquake.

11.4 Maintenance of Existing Buildings

A maintenance plan should be developed to ensure that the building continues to function in accordance with the management strategy that has been developed for the building.

The following flow chart indicates the processes that are required to be undertaken to achieve this maintenance program and some of the items that need to be considered for earthquake mitigation.

click here to see flow diagram for the maintenance of existing buildings

This maintenance process would include the continual upgrade of the following procedures as the need arises:

• Building Description
• Occupancy Register
• Equipment Register

The development of these procedures should be flexible and fluid. Maintenance schedules for the building are required to ensure that building remains in an operable state and will continue to function in accordance with the design and operational management plan proposed.

These procedures should include the inspection in the case of a post-disaster function of:-

• brick ties to ensure they are not damaged or broken due to rust, etc;
• anchor bolts to service equipment have not corroded, loosened or missing;
• watering systems or landscaping have not caused a change in the water table or moisture content of the soil, etc.

11.5 Disposal and Post Disaster

After an earthquake occurrence, inspections of all buildings, not just those for which the Queensland State Government has responsibility for, must be carried out, and each building must be classified as being "safe" "for occupancy" or "for operation", "is unsafe and requires repair " or is "unsafe and building requires demolition". This is normally carried out by experienced building inspectors or structural engineers specifically registered to carry out these inspections. One of the most important issues which must be included, is to ensure that all persons who occupied the building during the event have been accounted for. Injuries will be minimised if an emergency strategy is in place and all persons are aware of the emergency management plan and how it operates. Emergency service personnel may require immediate access to retrieve injured persons and this must be included in the plan. If the building has not been provided with post-earthquake safe operation, emergency service personnel may also be at risk while retrieving those injured.

As a consequence of an earthquake, the assessment of the building will include the requirements of emergency services for the:

• safe passage of rescuers;
• stability of the structure;
• rescue of trapped persons;
• access for emergency services:

	- personnel
	- vehicles

• egress for occupants.

Emergency Services organisations should be contacted to assist in the development of disaster strategies and plans for individual buildings.

click here to see flow diagram for post earthquake procedures

The risk of failure of a building can be assessed by allotting a level of potential vulnerability caused by:-

• the increased design load requirement (by the earthquake);
• the level of functionality for post-disaster performance; and
• the number of occupants generally using the building.

The level of potential vulnerability for a specific site can be comparatively assessed by a number of quite scientific methods, but a simple assessment can be achieved by adding the numerical value associated with the following performance criteria, and an example of this is:-

locality 			1
soil profile 			2
number of inhabitants		3
post-disaster function 		3

		 Total          9

This valuation can then be used for comparison between various sites for suitability of the building type, use, post-disaster requirements and locality.

These performance criteria values, for a specific site and building type, are determined from the following comparative potential vulnerability factors:-

TABLE 12.1 SOIL PROFILE RISK

    Soil Profile        Comparative Risk
                             Factor

       Type A                   1

       Type B                   2

       Type C                   3

       Type D                   4

       Type E                   5

Refer Definitions for soil type

TABLE 12.2 LOCALITY RISK

 Ground Acceleration    Comparative Risk
                             Factor

      0.3 - 0.4                 1

      0.4 - 0.6                 2

      0.6 - 0.8                 3

      0.8 - 1.0                 4

        > 1.0                   5

Refer AS1170 Part 4-1993 Earthquake Loads to determine the Ground Acceleration

TABLE 12.3 BUILDING RISK

      Number of         Comparative Risk
     Inhabitants             Factor

     Less than 5                1

       5 to 10                  2

      11 to 20                  3

      21 to 50                  4

        > 50                    5

TABLE 12.4 POST DISASTER FUNCTION

     Building Type          Comparative
                            Risk Factor

Essential eg Hospital            5

Desirable eg Assembly            3
Hall

Non Essential eg                 1
Commercial

Residential                      1

Vulnerability could also inlcude the ability of services to minimise damage following an earthquake. Accordingly an additional classification could be added which reflects the number of essential services located within a building, eg. backup power, emergency water storge, fire systems, sewerage, communications equipment and computer systems.

TABLE 12.5 NO. OF SERVICES

 No. of Services   Comparative Risk Factor

        9                     4

        6                     3

        3                     2

        1                     1

All buildings and structures are required to be designed in accordance with the following Australian Standards and the relevant standards pertinent to the building components being designed or constructed.

The following codes are both minimum and applicable to design for earthquakes in Australia to attain the potential for minimisation of failure due to earthquakes.

• AS1170 Part 1 - Loading Code,
• AS1170 Part 4 - Earthquake Loads,
• Building Code of Australia.

These Guidelines are to be used in the planning, design, management, operation and maintenance stages of a new building and shall also be used for the management and maintenance of existing buildings.

The Guidelines provide only a background to the requirements necessary for the planning, design management, operation and maintenance of any building or structure. Should any aspect not be covered in these Guidelines, advice should be sought from relevant professionals in engineering, architecture or building sciences with appropriate expertise and experience in earthquake engineering planning, design and emergency operation and management.

This Section of the Guidelines contains information that planners, designers and managers must consider during the relevant phases of the life of a building for earthquake damage mitigation and building management

Table 15.1 has been developed to assist those responsible to consider the relevant items during a particular phase of responsibility for the life of a building and indicates the clause of this Section relevant to a specific responsibility.

TABLE 15.1 - BUILDING COMPONENT - MANAGEMENT ASPECT IN EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION

                 PLANNING    DESIGN      ASSET    MAINTENANCE POST-DISAS    RISK
                                       MANAGEMENT      &         TER
                                                  OPERATIONS   DISPOSAL



SOIL              15.1.1     15.2.1      15.3.1     15.4.1      15.5.1     15.6.1
CONDITIONS

BUILDING          15.1.2     15.2.2      15.3.2     15.4.2      15.5.2     15.6.2
CLASSIFICATION

STRUCTURAL        15.1.3     15.2.3      15.3.3     15.4.3      15.5.3     15.6.3

MECHANICAL        15.1.4     15.2.4      15.3.4     15.4.4      15.5.4     15.6.4

ELECTRICAL        15.1.5     15.2.5      15.3.5     15.4.5      15.5.5     15.6.5

ARCHITECTURAL     15.1.6     15.2.6      15.3.6     15.4.6      15.5.6     15.6.6

HYDRAULIC         15.1.7     15.2.7      15.3.7     15.4.7      15.5.7     15.6.7

EXTERNAL          15.1.8     15.2.8      15.3.8     15.4.8      15.5.8     15.6.8
CONSTRAINTS

EMERGENCY         15.1.9     15.2.9      15.3.9     15.4.9      15.5.9     15.6.9
SERVICES

The basic matrix components components are defined horizontally by the building component factors and the columns by management aspects of the life cycle of the building. Each subsection references the management considerations of the building aspect requirements.

15.0.1 Soil Conditions

Other than the selection of the foundation system eg piles, bored piers, pad footings, strip footings or raft, the design of a building is significantly affected by the soil profile that exists at the particular site. Load coefficients are determined by the type of soil and the depth of the soil profile.

Each of the five (5) classifications of soil strata for general structures, vary the design loads imposed on a building and the type of structure required. The two(2) classifications for domestic structures provide basic coefficients for domestic design. These are all defined in the Australian Standard AS1170 Part 4 Earthquake Loads (See also Definitions).

15.0.2 Building Classification

The classification and purpose of the building also provides one of the design factors for determining the earthquake loads. Those buildings which form post-disaster functions such as hospitals and assembly buildings (which can house displaced persons), attract higher design load factors than those that do not.

There are also five (5) different levels of design methodology which are determined generally from the use of the building such as post-disaster functions, assembly of large crowds, or alternatively of limited numbers of people.

15.0.3 Structural

When considering a structural framing system to meet earthquake requirements, there are a number of issues that need to be addressed. These include:

• elimination of soft storeys;
• elimination of irregular or partially irregular shaped buildings;
• detail requirements for masonry elements;
• location of stiffening elements, eg. bracing walls, stair wells, lift shafts, symmetrically throughout the building, etc;
• continuity of load bearing members;
• selection of the appropriate foundation system; and
• determination of earth pressure on retaining walls

There are also five (5) levels of design and detailing required in AS1170 Part 4, varying from simple static analysis and unreinforced masonry, to dynamic analysis and elimination of all masonry elements, towards completely reinforced masonry with specific detailing requirements for general buildings. For domestic structures, there are three (3) levels of design and detail requirements. Typical structural elements that must be considered are:

• unreinforced load bearing walls;
• reinforced load bearing walls;

• braced frame

		- timber
		- concrete
		- steel

• moment resisting frame

		- concrete
		- steel
		- timber

retaining walls


Selection of the appropriate foundation and framing system and
attention to detailing requirements for masonry and framing are
particularly important to in the  minimisation of any potential
earthquake damage.



15.0.4 Mechanical

Mechanical services are usually limited to major buildings such
as assembly halls, hospitals, institutional, commercial and industrial
buildings.  The importance of these components is not only dependant
upon their post-disaster function, but also on the possible effect
on other components in the building such as pipework and electrical
installations.

Consideration of the consequences of failure during planning and
procurement, management and maintenance is critical to the post-disaster
availability and functionality of the building.

Typical mechanical items in major buildings include:

generators
water tanks
cooling systems
boilers
pipework
air conditioning units and
associated duct work
pumps
switchboards and I.T. systems





Many of these items are fixed to the structure with vibration isolators
for in-service operations, which in many cases are inadequate
to resist earthquake loads, whereas pipework is often rigidly
fixed to the adjacent support structure with no allowance for
lateral movement between mechanical equipment and the structure.

15.0.5. Electrical

Electrical services are provided generally to all buildings in
varying capacities.  The importance of continued operations after
an earthquake is dependant upon the post-disaster requirements
for the building.

It is highly probable that mains power will be discontinued due
to faults and disconnections in supply lines after an earthquake.
Hence the provision and successful operation of backup power
is critical to the continued functionality of the building after
an earthquake.

One could expect that after an earthquake, power generators could
be in short supply.  Hence the successful operation of the backup
supply is critical.

15.0.6 Architectural

Most failures and damage to buildings occurs due to loose items
that slide off shelving, or falling
from tall, slender, unsecured furniture.  Other damage is caused
by the brittle nature of unreinforced masonry walls.  During earthquakes,
loads are applied in all horizontal and vertical directions.
Items that fail under these conditions are items that generally
rely on gravity to remain in place.  Ceiling tiles, light fittings
and objects suspended from ceilings or roofs generally have little
or no vertical or lateral support (especially for reversal of
loads) or are inadequate to provide restraint during an earthquake.
 These objects can fall through opened grid systems and severely
injure occupants below.

The building shape and framing system
is critical to the successful resistance to an earthquake.  Soft storeys
should be avoided, eg. open undercover car parks within rigid
framed buildings.  Lift and stair shafts should be located symmetrically
throughout the building.  Otherwise the building will be subjected
to torsional forces during an earthquake.  Similarly heavy objects
such as water storage tanks should
be located within the centre of the building and as low as possible
within the height of the building  Heavy objects therefore should
ideally be situated at ground level where swaying from the imposition
of earthquake loads is reduced.

15.0.7 Hydraulic

Water supply and sewerage systems are often damaged during an
earthquake.  Water pipes may rupture or shear depending on the
severity of the earthquake and similar damage may occur to sewerage
systems in the ground rendering those services inoperable after
an earthquake.

These services are generally located underground and external
to the building and rectification in the short term immediately
after an earthquake is usually difficult to achieve due to access
problems.  Provision of these services after an earthquake would
generally be of a temporary nature until full services can be
provided which can take in some cases many months to reinstate.

15.0.8 External Site Considerations

Consideration of external services is particularly important for
buildings having post-disaster functions such as hospitals.  An
earthquake depending on its severity, can shear off pipework for
water, sewerage, gas and electricity.  Fault lines or differential
settlement of embankments after an earthquake may hinder emergency
vehicles accessing emergency buildings or evacuating injured from
non-emergency buildings.

During the planning stages of a building, planners should consider
the following:-

If disaster occurs, can the road network provide access to
the specific building especially ones with a post-disaster function,
eg. hospitals and temporary accommodation;
Can existing services such as water supply, sewerage, communications,
power, etc. cope with the design earthquake and continue to provide
the services to the level for which they were designed.





15.0.9 Emergency Services

Facilities such as hospitals, temporary accommodation for the
displaced population and communications structures are critical
to the Emergency Services organisations for quick response times
and organisation of services.

Reliance on mobile telephones after an earthquake for emergency
communications should not be made.  If power is removed from the
communications tower, or if the tower collapses then service in
the area would be lost.  Alternative methods of communication
must be established.

15.1 PLANNING

Refer also to  METHODOLOGY  - DESIGN OF NEW BUILDINGS

-  ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

-  ASSESSMENT FOR VULNERABILITY

Planning for the design of all new buildings should incorporate
a complete geotechnical investigation of the site to determine
the effect of the soil profile on any earthquake imposed load.
 This will then allow a comparative assessment of alternative
sites to be carried out.  It will also highlight whether a building
is located in a potentially high vulnerability area for earthquakes.
 The site investigation will also provide
information to determine the type of construction required for
the building and also the level of design required.  It will also
indicate to the building services engineers the standard of connections
for services equipment required.

15.1.1 Soil Conditions

Most soil investigations for small projects may only go to a depth
of 2 to 3 metres.  In most domestic building cases this is sufficient
as local geological conditions (where applicable) can be determined
from local agencies.

For major building infrastructure projects such as hospitals,
schools, commercial, institutional and industrial buildings, where
the building can be used for post-disaster functions, soil profiles
should extend to approximately 30 metres unless
low or better strength rock is encountered.  Care should be taken
that the rock encountered is not a large boulder or seam.

The strength and depth of the soil has a bearing on the load factors,
just as the locality of the site has a bearing on the load factors.
 These two load factors can significantly increase the strength
requirements of the structure which will also affect project costs.
 Hence in order to minimise both costs (construction and life
cycle maintenance) and vulnerability, the building
should be located in a low risk area and on a good foundation
strata.

All future developments should also be considered to ensure that
the soil and foundation conditions do not change over the life
of the building.  For example, an increase in water table levels
in sandy areas will increase the risk of liquefaction and or reduce
the bearing capacity of the soil and accordingly may increase
both the cost of construction and the building's vulnerability
and reduce its life cycle availability.

15.1.2 Building Classification

The combination of the use and classification of the building
and the soil conditions must be considered during planning for
the location of the building as these two factors have cumulative
load factors applied during the design of the structure, building
components and building services.  This will increase costs on
the structure due to the increased loads to be resisted.  Hence,
the building especially with critical post-disaster functions,
should be located in an area to minimise its vulnerability.  This
may be achieved for example, by locating the building on a site
that has a soil profile comprising of dense gravelly material
rather than loose sand or deep alluvial deposits.

15.1.3 Structural

In planning for the building's framing system, the type of minimum
design and details required is controlled by the locality, soil conditions,
and the use of the building.  Reference should be made to Table
2.6 of AS1170 Part 4 which defines the type of design required
for the appropriate soil conditions and type of building.

Selection of an appropriate locality and site with soil profile
that minimises design loads provides significant savings to cost
of the structure and framing requirements.

15.1.4 Mechanical

The earthquake design loads increase as the height above ground
level increases.  The load factor for this increase in height
varies from 1 at ground level to 2 at the top of the structure.
 Hence during planning, the requirements for resistance against
earthquakes is minimised by locating equipment at ground level.
 Location of equipment relative to other services and the consequences
of failure must be considered.

For example, water storage tanks in high rise buildings are not
designed to resist surge loads imposed on the side walls of the
tanks by the movement of water during an earthquake.  Hence the
possibility of rupture of the tank is high.  The forces from the
earthquake induces imbalance loads from one side of the tank to
the other.  This can then cause a number of failures depending
on the type of structure including;-

tearing of welds between walls and base plates;
shifting of the tank on its support (sliding)
having insufficient lateral resistance;
cracking of concrete and/or masonry walls;
buckling of the walls; and
spillage due to insufficient freeboard.





Electrical transformers, switch rooms, and lift motor rooms are
often located in floors below these tanks.  Rupture of the tank
can then cause shorting of electrical equipment causing failure
of main supply line electricity and backup power generation.
This is of course assuming that the fuel supply lines for the
generators have not sheared off due to differential movement or
that electrical cables have not severed for the same reason.
Other problems which can occur are the shearing off of vibration
isolation brackets allowing equipment to move, causing supply
or fuel lines to be broken.

15.1.5 Electrical

As indicated in Section "15.1.4 Mechanical", components
are subject to increased load factors as its location within a
building increases in height.  This is also true for electrical
components.  Hence, to minimise the stability requirements for
electrical equipment they should be located in the lower sections
of the building.  This also assists in the maintenance of the
equipment both on a (generally) daily basis and also after an
emergency such as an earthquake.

Electrical components should be located away from, or protected
from liquid conduits such as pipelines and drums which can burst,
buckle and spill during an earthquake.  If the electrical circuit
shorts, the successful operation of backup systems can also be
jeopardised.

Differential movements between fixed and moving items can cause
wires to be pulled from fittings.  It is therefore important that:-

Sufficient loose wire is provided between static and moveable
items and that all wiring is adequately anchored; and
Electrical equipment is adequately anchored to the floor to
prevent breaking free.





Items that are located on shelves, if not anchored properly, can
slide off or the shelf can collapse due to the imposed load.
It is common during earthquakes for bottles, books etc. placed
on shelves to slide off the end of shelves many metres away.
Emergency supply battery packs are no different when stacked on
shelves and these need to be supported both horizontally and vertically
for constraint purposes.

15.1.6 Architectural

In the planning stages, consideration needs to be given to all
the vulnerable elements and whether these can be eliminated, reduced,
or controlled.

The following items need to be considered to enhance the performance
of a building during an earthquake:-

there are no "soft storeys";
the building is of a regular shape:
tall slender objects are securely fixed in place (top and
bottom);
items cannot slide off shelves
or support structures;
stiff building elements are positioned symmetrically throughout
the building (e.g. lift shafts and stair wells or masonry shear
walls);
masonry walls may have to be reinforced to suit the design
requirements of AS1170 Part 4 Earthquake Loading Code;
ceilings and light fittings
are fixed in place both horizontally and vertically (up and down);
 the building is located to minimise earthquake design loads
with respect to locality, soil profile and post-disaster function
requirements;
post-disaster function buildings are located away from high
risk areas;
in earthquake situations, building occupants must exit a building
as quickly as possible ie. within minutes (not tens of minutes)
- Are there sufficient exit doors (size and number) to cater for
the egress of occupants, etc?;
when the building moves will the door jam shut preventing
occupants from exiting;
fires often start after earthquakes
- Will the sprinkler system be operable after the earthquake?
if an earthquake occurs can the building be accessed by emergency
vehicles?;
can external communications be made (telephone, radio) - whre
are they located?;
can external facilities such as road network, water supply,
power, communications, sewerage still be provided?;
can sections of the buildings be accessed from other areas
internally not externally for emergency rescue access and exit
purposes?





15.1.7 Hydraulic

In the design of hydraulic services, allowances for movement between
in-ground and above-ground fixtures shall be provided.  Ensure
that pipes are located away from electrical installations which
may short-circuit if pipes rupture.  Ensure pipes are fixed laterally
and vertically in position.  If pipes are free to move then movement
joints in ends must be provided.

15.1.8 External Constraints

Check the capability of existing services such as water, power,
sewerage and communication and the impact of failure on the building.
 Will these capacities be adequate for the builing requirements
should an earthquake occur?  Do existing services need to be upgraded
to meet with the requirements?  If the provision or upgrading
of external facilities is not feasible, what emergency contingencies
are in place to overcome any shortfalls in capacity should there
be a possibility of failure.

15.1.9 Emergency Services

Emergency services such as Police, Fire, Ambulance, Rescue Teams,
Security Local Authorities and Agencies should be consulted to
ensure that their needs are accommodated in the case of an earthquake
eg.:

Road access
Communications
Power
Egress
Access





Has a list of equipment been made for use in disaster strategies?
 Ensure that records of the various Emergency Service providers
in the building's area have up to date informatiion on the building
and its occupants.  Updates should be undertaken at intervals
not exceeding six (6) months.

15.2 PROCUREMENT

Refer also to  METHODOLOGY - DESIGN OF NEW BUILDINGS

15.2.1 Soil Conditions

The soil that is encountered at a site
can significantly increase the imposed earthquake loads on a building
and its elements, and accordingly the type of foundations that
are utilised, e.g. piled, piers, pad, strip or raft footings,
etc.

The effect of the water table, type of soil and foundation must
be considered, e.g. liquefaction of loose sands may occur on skin
friction piles, and in this case, this type of pile would be inappropriate.

15.2.2 Building Classification

The classification of the building directly alters the factors
used to determine the loads applied to the structure for design
against structural failure due to earthquakes. Ensure that the
design load factors that are used are applicable for the specific
use of the building and for post-disaster functions if required
and also to suit any future changes to the building's use, if
it is known at the design stages.

15.2.3 Structural

Refer to METHODOLOGY - DESIGN OF NEW BUILDINGS

Minimum design and detail requirements apply to various types
of structures according to their use and classification, locality and
soil types.

The minimum design and structural framing requirements for various
types of buildings are for example (from AS1170 Part 4):

 Structure Type        Typical Building         Design Level
                         Description

      III        Hospitals                            C

       II        Assembly Hall                        B

       I         Not Residential and not II           A
                 or III

                 Residential                         H1






Consideration to allow the transfer of loads is important in the
design to resist and distribute earthquake loads and hence minimise
damage.  This transfer or load distribution would typically include
the following:

where the building is of irregular shape,
ensure that the varying vibration modes for the different sections
of the building are uniform;
ensure that the vertical component of any imposed earthquake
loads is considered in the design and especially at columns supporting
flat plate slabs.
ensure that retaining walls that are acting as support for
upper floors are integrally connected to foundations and columns
to prevent differential movement between floors and columns
ensure that reinforcement from retaining walls continues through
the non-retaining section of the walls into the floors above.
 This shall ensure that loss of support for upper floors does
not occur due to lateral movement and rotation of the wall under.
consider the effect of the differential movement and application
of load, as the earthquake wave passes through a building.
are masonry walls in accordance with the detail and design
requirements of AS1170 Part 4?
ensure that gable end walls
are adequately supported and tied to fixed members;
ensure sufficient bonding to brick ties is achieved;
ensure sufficient strength is obtained to support any "soft floor systems";
ensure even distribution of all forces and stresses throughout
the building, i.e. locate stair shafts and lift wells symmetrically;
ensure openings around windows are adequately reinforced.
ensure extensions to existing buildings are physically attached
to prevent differential movement.
ensure masonry screen walls do not exceed stability limits
for overturning due to horizontal earthquake loads.




Studies are being continually carried out to increase the data
base of earthquakes to refine the soil and locality acceleration
coefficients and updated inforrmation should be incorporated into
all design aspects.

15.2.4 Mechanical

The applied load on mechanical equipment due to earthquakes increases
as the location of the equipment in the building increases in
height.  Locating the equipment at the top of the building effectively
doubles the applied load.

Good structural design as well as specifically located vibration isolators
must be provided to resist these applied loads.  Rigid fixings
should also be designed to resist horizontal and vertical loads
as friction forces are generally lost as the building vibrates.

Pipework attached to equipment should have provision for differential
movement between the structure and the equipment.  Vibration of
equipment will occur in all directions.

Joints in pipework should be able to accommodate the expected
rotations and lateral movements.  Fixing of pipework at structural
isolation joints should be spaced sufficiently apart to allow
lateral movement between sections in all directions.

15.2.5 Electrical

Refer also to Section 15.2.4 Mechanical
as similar comments for mechanical equipment also apply to electrical
equipment, and in addition;

ensure adequate fixings to critical items are provided to
allow continued operation;
ensure wiring is adequately fixed so that it does not pull
from sockets and connections during an earthquake;
ensure loose items have restricted movement and sufficient
loose wire is provided to allow for the necessary movement;
ensure items are located away from pipelines and other liquid
carrying conduits that may burst during an earthquake;
if power is discontinued ensure that items that are required
for building operations can be manually operated eg; electrically
operated doors; and
ensure that equipment is restrained both laterally and vertically.





Applied forces on equipment increases as the location in the building
increases in height.  The applied factor varies from 1 at ground
level to 2 at the top of the building ie. applied loads are doubled.

15.2.6 Architectural

During the design of a building to minimise earthquake damage
the following aspects should be considered;

are the selected building materials suitable to minimise damage
from an earthquake?
gable and parapet brick walls
are renowned for failure during earthquakes, can these be eliminated?
are there sufficient egress points to enable mass exit in
the event of disaster?  Are the access to these exits also capable
of carrying the population numbers for which the building is designed?
are tall cupboards and support structures adequately fixed
to walls?
are heavy objects located at the
lowest part and centrally in the building?
can "soft storeys" be eliminated?
can the building be designed as a regular shape?
are suspended ceiling grids adequately restrained?
are the tops of partition walls adequately restrained?(fixing
to suspended ceiling grid may not be suffiicient).
are masonry walls deigned to meet the detail and design requirements
of AS1170 Part 4 (refer to "Section 15.2.3 Structural")?
are brick ties adequately corrosion protected from industrial
and environmental attack (most brick ties in Newcastle were severely
corroded due to industrial elements)?





15.2.7 Hydraulic

Reference should also be made to Section 15.2.4 "Mechanical"
as hydraulic services provisions are similar.  The following are
typical of the items that need to be considered for earthquake
damage mitigation:-

ensure pipes are rigidly fixed in position at the ends with
flexible couplings being provided to allow for movement;
can support brackets provide restraint both vertically and
horizontally;
if vibration isolation supports are provided, ensure joints
can provide the necessary movement under earthquake conditions;
ensure expansion longitudinal, lateral and vertical movement
joints are provided between independent rigid systems;
valves and junctions which are generally much heavier than
standard pipe lengths require support.  If the valve is supported
by the adjacent pipework, can the pipework and flanges carry the
applied shear load due to the mass of the valve, under earthquake
loading?  If not, provide adequate fixity.





15.2.8 External Constraints - Refer
to Section 15.0.8

15.2.9 Emergency Services - Refer
to Section 15.0.9

15.3 ASSET MANAGEMENT

See also METHODOLOGY - ASSET MANAGEMENT

   - ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

15.3.1 Soil Conditions

During the life of a building, measures should be taken to ensure
that conditions of the underlying soil strata remain unchanged
or are improved.  This is necessary to ensure that imposed earthquake
loads do not increase, nor that the capacity of the soil to carry
the load is not reduced. (eg. water table level change, saturated
clays, etc.).

Planting of suitable and approved trees and shrubs can ensure
that the water table remains constant or is reduced, is one way
to maintain the properties of the soil,  Care must be taken that
the plants are not over watered which would be detrimental to
the properties of the soil, and that the plants' root systems
do not cauuse failure to the building's foundations.

The strategic management plan that is developed should include
provision for the maintenance of the surrounding ground to ensure
that the soil profile and soil properties are not altered from
that existing prior to the construction of the building and used
in the design of the building.  This is particularly important
when constructing in loose sands and silts where liquefaction
can occur, potentially causing differential settlement of the
building.  It is equally important in other types of soil materials
where the strength of the material is reduced, as this can cause
slippage of embankments due to ground vibration.

15.3.2 Building Classification

During the life of a building, classifications can sometimes change
or partially alter due to changes in use.  A change in classification
of the building or part of it may inflict a penalty on the asset
management plan by increasing the design loads which the building
must be able to resist in the case of an earthquake.

The asset manager should ensure that the strategic plan that is
developed for the building includes the use of the building and
its requirement for post-disaster functions (if required).  If
the  building is designed for a domestic classification then
it will not be able to upgrade to a higher (commercial, institutional)
classification and still satisfy earthquake load resistance requirements.
 Property managers and designers should ensure that when a building
changes classification or use, the building is able to meet the
requirements of the Earthquake Loading Code AS1170 Part 4
as well as the Building Code of Australia requirements.

15.3.3 Structural

Ensure that any changes made to the building do not reduce the
capacity of the existing structural system, and including:-

installation of masonry walls can stiffen one section of the
building and induce higher loads into other parts of the building
- need to check;
removal of some sections of the structure may alter the distribution
of load and hence alter the stability under earthquake conditions
- need to check;
adjacent buildings which are built close to each other should
have similar relevant stiffness and periods of vibration, otherwise
excessive damage may be caused by the two buildings colliding
with each other or provide sufficient space between buildings;
minimum space between independent buildings
should be 50mm times the number of floors in the shorter building,
otherwise they should be continuously attached and have similar
stiffness.





15.3.4 Mechanical

Equipment may be required for post-disaster functions and so equipment
should be maintained in good working order to ensure that it will
function in an emergency situation.

Any new equipment that is installed should be designed and
fixed to meet the same "in-service" criteria as the
original equipment (assuming the original equipment has been installed
correctly);
ensure holding down. bolts are in good condition - if not,
repair;
check that vibration support systems can support the applied
earthquake loads;
check that pipe support brackets can provide resistance to
both horizontal and vertical loads;
ensure that if any differential movement between pipe support
and equipment can be accommodated by the pipework, or provide
a flexible joint.





15.3.5 Electrical

ensure where fixings have been provided that they are correctly
installed;
ensure that sufficient loose wiring is provided to allow movement
between more rigid connections;
ensure that any loose item movement is restricted;
ensure that any new equipment fitted, meets the same suitability
and functional requirements as that of the existing building equipment;
ensure that any repairs are fully completed and all anchor
bolts are correctly installed;
ensure that sufficient space is provided between individual
items to prevent damage when vibration occurs; and
ensure that wiring is securely fixed to connections.





15.3.6 Architectural

if the building classification is changed will it increase
earthquake design load requirements?
if the building is altered in its design is the new work consistent
and integral with the old work?
is the building still operating in the manner for which it
was originally designed?
is a Disaster Strategy in place?
are all security personnel aware of the Disaster Strategy?
 If not ensure that they are!





15.3.7 Hydraulic

ensure that all equipment is included in the strategic plan.





15.3.8 External Constraints

computer equipement should be located to prevent it sliding
off desks or other supports.





15.3.9 Emergency Services - Refer
also Section 15.0.8 - Emergency Services

ensure that modification to the building, e.g. hospitals meet
with emergency services requirements.





15.4 MAINTENANCE

Refer also METHODOLOGY - MAINTENANCE OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

15.4.3 Structural

ensure that the structure is in good condition e.g. ensure
corrosion of all metal components is eliminated, brick-ties have
no degrading, cracks in masonry are repaired, check for foundation
settlement, and all bolts are fixed into the appropriate connections.
 Performance of all structural members must be always maintained
as originally designed.





15.4.4 Mechanical

ensure that all equipment is correctly and adequately fixed
in place e.g. generators, air conditioning ducts, pipework, water tanks,
etc.





15.4.5 Electrical

ensure that emergency lighting systems are checked and repaired
regularly,
ensure that all equipment is adequately anchored;
and
ensure all wiring is adequately fixed into connections.



15.4.6 Architectural

Ensure that all:-

window sealants are flexible;
ceiling tiles are fixed (i.e.
replace clips);
access and egress passageways are clear;
light fittings adequately fixed;
tall cupboards supported at top and will not slide or fall
over;
ensure all pipework is adequately fixed in place; and
expansion and contraction joints are upgraded (correctly)
and that they are not seized.





15.4.7 Hydraulic

Ensure that pipework integrity is maintained i.e.:

cracks and supports are repaired; and
insulation maintained.





15.4.9 Emergency Services

ensure access and egress for emergency personnel and vehicles
is maintained.
ensure safety equipment is maintained including.:

fire fighting equipment;
fire escape doors, etc.





15.5 POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

Refer also to   METHODOLOGY - POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

15.5.1 Soil Conditions

After an earthquake, the soil can become fractured or loose, considerably
altering the capacity of the soil to support load.  Aftershocks
sometimes occur at different levels of magnitude after the main
earthquake.  These aftershocks can be up to the same magnitude
as the original earthquake and be just as if not more drastic
in effect, often due to the reduced capacity of the structure
and the reduced capacity of the foundation material.  This should
be incorporated into a Post-Disaster Emergency Plan.

15.5.2 Building Classification

Refer also to   METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

15.5.3 Structural

Refer also to METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

In the event of an earthquake, the following checks must be carried
out:

determine extent of damage;
determine if structure can be repaired or requires demolition
(heritage issues may need to be addressed);
if the structure is pre or post tensioned, determine the safe
work practices which will enable rectification and/or demolition.





15.5.4 Mechanical

Refer also to METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

In the event of an earthquake the following checks must be carried
out:

if equipment has come away from its support ensure that it
is stable before attempting any rectification as aftershocks are
highly possible and injury to any workers may occur;
is the equipment still suitable for use?  If so - fix!
is further damage likely to occur due to aftershocks? Ask
of Emergency Service Personnel.





15.5.5 Electrical

Refer also to   METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

In the event of an earthquake, the following checks must be carried
out:

check capacity of equipment for reuse;
if equipment is to be replaced, ensure power is disconnected;
if property is severely damaged, ensure power is disconnected
and live wires are not present if mains power is returned.





15.5.6 Architectural

Refer also to   METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

In the event of an earthquake, the following checks must be carried
out:

assess damage;
is the building suitable for continual use? - needs insspection
is the building repairable?  - needs inspection
should the building be demolished?
are there any heritage issues?
if the building is repaired such repair must meet at least
the current building codes and these guidelines as the next earthquake
could cause similar damage.
if any repairs are carried out, can the activities of the
building be maintained while installing new support structures,
effecting repairs?





15.5.7 Hydraulic

Refer also to   METHODOLOGY -  POST-DISASTER AND DISPOSAL

In the event of an earthquake, the following checks must be carried
out:

ensure pipework is not cracked;
replace damaged pipework;
is the existing system adequate?  - if not, provide recommendations
to improve;
test for possible leakages including smoke and pressure tests.





15.5.8 External Constraints

Rectification of external services could take some time and temporary
services may be almost semi permanent.  What contingencies are
in place to accommodate this in the Management Plan?

15.5.9 Emergency Services  -  Refer Section
15.4.9

15.6 RISK

Refer also to METHODOLOGY and ASSESMENT OF VULNERABILITY

If the building has been designed in accordance with the appropriate
codes and building requirements for earthquake mitigation, then
the risk of failure due to an earthquake should be minimal.  However
if there are components in the building that fail or cause the
building not to operate in the required manner e.g. loss of power,
then the risk of failure can be considerable.

15.6.1 Soil Conditions

Soil conditions and  their characteristics
form one of the major risk components in earthquake design mitigation.
 The soil and foundations to the building, are one of the major
factors which determine the design loads applied and the ability
of the structure to resist the applied loads.  This must always
be assessed.

15.6.2 Building Classification

The building classification defines the use of the building which
in turn defines some of the requirements on types of construction
, limits on building sizes, fire compartments and occupancy levels
for the purposes of fire resistance.  It does not however define
the type of construction required for earthquake resistance.
hence the building classification alone cannot be  used to attribute
a level of vulnerability.

It could be assumed therefore, that if the occupancy level is
low then the building would also have a low risk of failure, but
this is not the case.  In fact, it is the type of construction
used in the "low risk" buildings that puts the occupants
and the building in a high vulnerability category.  For example,
a 2 storey "six-pack" of domestic units which has a
reasonably low level of occupancy, little post-disaster functionality,
basement car park with masonry load bearing walls for support
with little or no continuity from foundation level to roof has
a very high risk (or is extremely vulnerable to failure) in the
event of an earthquake.

Similarly, for example, a Class 10 building/structure (to BCA
classification) which covers mast, flagpoles and antennas can
be attributed different levels of risk.  A flagpole, for instance,
may have a minor post-disaster function whereas an antenna which
is critical for radio communications between police, the public
and emergency services would probably have a high post-disaster
function.  Consideration of this must always be taken into account
when assessing RISK.

Hence those buildings which have the potential to contain a large
number of people during an earthquake or have a post-disaster
function have the highest potential risk associated with
them, but must be designed to have the lowest potential risk.

The following typical risk levels have been determined by the
number of people that could be injured or critically injured due
to an earthquake in the event of failure.


CLASS    DESCRIPTION                   RISK

1        Residential-single dwelling   Low *
         or townhouse

2        Residential-sole occupancy    Low *

3        Residential-boarding house,   Low */ Medium
         hotel, aged care etc

4        Residential-a dwelling        Low */ Medium
         attached to a Class 5,6,7,8
         or 9 building

5        Offices                       Medium

6        Retail (Shops)                Medium

7        Car park/Wholesale Store      Low

8        Processing Plant              Medium

9        Health/Assembly               High/Medium

10       Masts/Antenna                 Low/High






* These classes of buildings may have a low risk associated with
them in terms of post-disaster functions but may be extremely
vulnerable due to the general type of construction (unreinforced
masonry).

15.6.3 Structural  -  Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.4 Mechanical  - Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.5 Electrical  -  Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.6 Architectural  -  Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.7 Hydraulic  -  Refer 15.6

.

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.8 External Constraints  -  Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.

15.6.9 Emergency Services  -  Refer 15.6

Refer also 5.0 Typical Building Elements that
are damaged during earthquakes.



16 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES

16.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES



FEMA, 1996, NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation
of Buildings, Federal Emergency Management Agency (Report
No. FEMA 273), Washington DC.





These guidelines outline the methods of repairing buildings after
an event.  It includes the determination of loads, soil condition
criteria, hazard levels, framing systems and models and analysis
of the various building systems.

FEMA, 1988, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: Supporting Documentation, Federal Emergency
Management Agency (Report No. FEMA 155), Washington DC.





This document contains a number of sketches and photographs which
identify the various building types and framing systems as well
as identifying the potential hazard components of a building and
the failure mechanisms.

FEMA, 1989, Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings: Supporting
Documentation, Federal Emergency Management Agency (Report
No. FEMA 175), Washington DC.





Contains a number of typical forms used for evaluating seismic
resistance of buildings including the responses.

FEMA, 1988, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: A Handbook, Federal Emergency Management
Agency , ATC-21, Washington DC.





This document outlines a number of procedures for rapid visual
screening of buildings for potential hazard and has developed
a series of question and answer checklists to assist in the screening.

ATC 1989, Procedures for the Post Earthquake Safety Evaluation
of Buildings, Applied Technology Council ATC-20,California.





This book contains a variety of studies and photographs which
indicate typical damage areas and indicates where damage can occur
and where to look for it in areas which failure is not always
visible from the outside.

FEMA, 1989,  A Handbook for Seismic Evaluation of Existing
Buildings (Preliminary), Federal Emergency Management Agency,
(Report No. FEMA 178), Washington DC.





Identifies a number of different framing systems and contains
procedures forms for evaluation of existing buildings.

Swiss Re, 1990, Newcastle: The Writing on the Wall,
Swiss Reinsurance Company, Zurich Switzerland.





The Swiss Reinsurance Company report on damage caused by the Newcastle
earthquake.

Dr Blong R,. Dr Walker G., Dr Berz G., Griffiths N., Scott
P., 1996, The Newcastle Earthquake '89, background causes,
effects, implication, Munich Re Service Division, Sydney.





A report prepared by the Munich Reinsurance Company on the effects,
causes and implications of the Newcastle earthquakes and outlines
costs to the insurance industry.

IEAust, 1990, Newcastle Earthquake Study, The Institution
of Engineers Australia, Australia.





Document prepared by the Institution of Engineers, Australia discusses
issues such as construction, design, insurance, previous seismicity,
safety assessment, post disaster functions, risk management and
heritage issues that were raised due to the Newcastle Earthquake.

Newcastle City Council, 1989, Newcastle Earthquake Response
Record, Newcastle City Council, Newcastle.





Reports by the various emergency departments into the procedures
undertaken after the event and the problems that occurred.

NCC and CERA, 1991, Proceedings Papers "What We Have
Learnt From the Newcastle Earthquake" Lessons in Building
Design, Regulation Disaster Management, Earth Science and the
Legal and Insurance Implications, The University of Queensland,
Australia.





A series of papers and notes on the Newcastle Earthquake ranging
from design issues, emergency procedures, insurance aspects, construction
issues, latent defects.

SAA, 1993, AS1170.4-1993 Minimum design loads on structures
Part 4: Earthquake Loads, Standards Association of Australia,
Australia.





This document specifies minimum earthquake design load on buildings
and components.

SAA, 1989, SAA Loading Code,  Part 1:Dead and Live Load
Combinations, Standards Association of Australia, Australia.





This document specifies the minimum combinations of loads on buildings.

The Practice of earthquake hazard assessment, International
association of seismology and physics of the earths interior and
European seismological commission,1993.





An outline of the different methods used by the various countries
in the earthquake hazard assessment for their areas.

SAA ,1991,AS2601-1991,The Demolition of structures,
Standards Association Of Australia, Australia.





Specifies the procedures to be undertaken for the demolition of
some of the various types of structures.

Rynn J.M.W.,1989, Commentary On Seismic Risk Estimates
and Related Uncertainties for Northeastern Australia (Queensland
and Northeastern New South Wales), Department of Geology and
Mineralogy, The University of Queensland, 1989.





Rynn J.M.W., Hughes P.R., Brennan E., Pedersen I.S., Stuart
H.J., Final Report Of Urbanised Areas Of Australia Phase 2
1992-1993 Program "Earthquake Zonation For Southeast Queensland",
The Centre for Earthquake Research in Australia., 1993.





Report which outlines the development of the earthquake zonation
in Australia, in particular South East Queensland.

Hughes P.R., Rynn J.M.W., Limitations Of The Cornell-Mcguire
Earthquake Risk Method: An Engineering Viewpoint For Australia.,
Proceedings- 1993 National Earthquake Conference, Central
United States Earthquake Consortium,1993.





A discussion on the limitations of the typical method of determining
earthquake risk as used by other countries for Australia.

Rynn J.M.W., Methodology for Earthquake Zonation of Continental
Regions-Example for the Sydney Region, Australia. Proceedings-
1993 National Earthquake Conference,  Central United States
Earthquake Consortium,1993.





Paper discussion on the method of determining the earthquake zones
in Australia, in particular Sydney.

Pedersen I.S., Hughes P.R.,  Engineering Implications for
Continental Earthquakes: Inferences from the 1989 Newcastle Earthquake.
Proceedings- 1993 National Earthquake Conference,  Central
United States Earthquake Consortium,1993.





A paper discussion on the Implications of Continental Earthquakes,
(Intraplate no tectonic) on engineering design, construction and
insurance.

Rynn J.M.W., Hughes P.R., Brennan E., Pedersen I.S., Stuart
H.J., The  1989 Newcastle, Australia Earthquake: The Facts
and Misconceptions., Bulletin of the New Zealand National
Society for Earthquake Engineering, Vol 25,no.2 June 1992.





Paper discussion on the geology, history of the area, seismicity,
extent of damage and design requirement in the Newcastle area
after the Newcastle Earthquake.

CERA, Report on Seismic Risk Estimates and Engineering
Design Practice For South-East Kalimantan, Indonesia, The
Centre for Earthquake Research in Australia,1992.





CERA,  Report On Seismic Zonation And Its Application To
Earthquake Mitigation In Australia, The Centre for Earthquake
Research in Australia,1991.





ATC, 1989, Field Manual: Post Earthquake Safety Evaluation
of Buildings, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City California.,
1989.  Product Manual of procedures and forms for use by Building
Inspections Consultants and the like for the evaluation of existing
buildings after an event.

16.2 Internet Sites

University of Queensland http://shakes.earthsciences.uq.edu.au/

Harvard   http://tempo.harvard.edu/homepage.html

Applied Technology Council http://www.atcouncil.org

Washington   http://www.geophys.washington.edu/seismosurfing.html

Carleton   http://www/cieng/carleton.ca/cqi-bin/quakes